The role of sports on youth development and social inclusion amongst young people
Executive Summary
This dissertation analyses the current state of access to sports and recreation by the socially excluded groups of the UK society with a view of providing recommendations for improvement. The renovating of facilities can help to create and manipulate environments to facilitate people to motivate them. It is possible to note from the results that there were negative attitudes towards the assertion that sports could only be played with a ‘proper’ club membership. The majority response agreed with the contention that sports clubs can be too expensive and may actually deter youth from engaging in sports. There was a large amount of favour shown for the view that more children and youngsters would play sports if the Government set up free leisure centres. It seems that affluent people, and not poorer people, can afford to spend money on some activities such as joining group activities or outing in order to enhance their social-interaction and happiness, in addition to enhancing their quality of life. For the public sector and private sector leisure service providers, the aim is to not only motivate people, but create and manipulate environments to facilitate people to motivate themselves. Other recommendations discussed therein have included local government efforts to renovate the existing facilities of the United Kingdom in order to create and manipulate environments to facilitate people to motivate themselves. Action plans as discussed before can be made to enhance the better usage of the current facilities, thereby fulfilling the needs and wants of the young socially excluded groups in local neighbourhoods, particularly those in rural areas.
1.1 Background
Sport has a relevance and importance that moves beyond the obvious features of sporting activity. Naturally, a whole host of possible benefits can be derived from undertaking sporting activity. Indeed, health and physical wellbeing rank highly in the positive outcomes that sport can deliver. However, sport has an important role to play on a variety of others ways. For example, in recent years there has been a range of literature, and also a political focus, which has highlighted the role sport can play in youth development (Holt, 2007). The issue of youth development is of continued concern to both social academics and political forces alike. The focus of such concern invariably tends to be placed on the negative impact low levels of youth development can have, not only on the individual, but also wider society. Indeed, it is not uncommon to hear concerted suggestions that modern youth fail to undertake adequate levels of social responsibility and are ever inclined towards anti-social type behaviour. Therefore, effectively countering the processes which lead to poor youth development has been a continued preoccupation for academics and policy makers for many years now (Holt, 2007).
It has been widely documented that education, in general, has a pivotal role to play in ensuring effective and constructive development amongst young people. However, beyond the confines of traditional structured education, the importance of sport as a method of combating poor development on a variety of levels is something which has achieved increasing focus. Above all, sporting activity can play a positive role in youth development in a whole host of ways, including personal development in terms of issues such as self respect, motivation and desire for success, along with increased personal confidence (Gatz et al, 2002). However, participation with others in sporting activities leads to wider benefits such as increased knowledge of working in collaboration with others, along with various other benefits brought about as a result of involvement in team based sporting activities (Poinsett, 1996). Thus, at the outset it is important to highlight the degree to which sport is now regarded in many varied quarters as an essential component in effective youth development.
- Research Aims and Objectives
The research aims and objectives are placed firmly within the wider theoretical assumptions on which sport and youth development are based. However, in order to achieve increased levels of academic soundness and allow for focused research to be undertaken, it will be necessary to confine detailed research to specific areas. The research will therefore focus on sport development in young people. The reasons, which account for this focus, are explored further in the methodology section below. Research processes and methods will be directed by the overall objective of examining the increasingly prevalent relationship between youth development and sport. Thus, the degree to which these two variables interact will be a consistent feature of analysis. As such, the research will be directed at a number of areas where these two variables form essential relationships in terms of individual outcomes and wider social effects.
General Research Questions
Naturally, the research, which will be undertaken, will be based heavily on the research aims and objectives outlined above. However, in order to achieve contextual precision in the research, it is necessary to outline a clear set of questions, which the study will aim to explore. Therefore, the basic research questions on which the overall study will be based are as follows;
- In what ways do sport and youth development interact?
- In what ways is sport able to enhance youth development?
- To what degree does increased youth participation in sport reduce the possibilities of encountering social difficulties and behavioural problems?
- How have the social constructs of sports and masculine identity hindered inclusion so far?
1.3 Secondary Research Questions
- The perceived societal importance of club memberships for playing proper sports
- Whether too many clubs for sports are getting in the way of proper club membership
- Whether Sports Clubs are too expensive and can deter youth from sports?
- Whether more children and youngsters would play sports if the Government set up free leisure centres?
- Whether playing sports keeps children away from drugs and violence and to be a more positive and productive part of the community
- Whether engaging in sports enhance important life skills such as teamwork etc?
- Whether playing sports professionally will alleviate the finances of youth from less privileged backgrounds?
- Whether sports clubs can be vital in enhancing community relations between the local people
- The perceived role of the governments in ensuring youth development through their sports skills
- The perceived role of sports in preventing crime in younger children and promoting the general feeling of well-being in the youth as well as promoting communal harmony
- Whether ensuring participation in sports can prevent or reduce anti-social behaviour in society if promoted in the schools from a younger age?
- Whether youth from less privileged backgrounds can be encouraged to play sports by being offered college scholarships and other incentives to encourage social inclusion and youth development in a society
1.4 Methodology
In terms of methodological approach, it was necessary to direct the research process at a specific youth age group with a focus on the period of adolescence. The adolescent period in young people is generally viewed as being anywhere from the age of 11 up to 21. Further categorisation does occur with the split between early (11-14 years), middle (15-18 years) and late (18-21 years) (Holt, 2007). The research undertaken will assume a position, which undertakes analysis on the basis of all these periods. Although it is sometimes possible to outline different processes with regards to different adolescent periods, it is generally possible to carry out detailed research, which encapsulates the entirety of adolescence. Thus, in this sense, the research will adopt a broad basis of analysis.
1.5 Primary and Secondary Research
The primary methods have utilized desktop research processes and the use of secondary research material will figure prominently in the research technique. The general subject under discussion has been covered in significant detail by numerous academic authorities; therefore in order to gain a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the subject matter it will naturally be necessary to examine such source material. Secondary source material has been attained from books written on the subject. However where relevant and necessary, journal articles will also be used in the desktop research process. Although the secondary source material derived from books has been a representation of the primary method through which research has been undertaken, the author has found it necessary to utilise primary source material. In particular, given that some areas of the research require analysis of policy actions and implementation then the use of central government publications will be required. In addition, other local governmental organisations also play an important role in sport provision and development for young people. Therefore, publications of this kind have been liberally utilised when they are available and also any information that is derived from the websites of such sources.
The use of the above research methods is justifiable for a number of reasons. Firstly, secondary source material represents a key component in the process of ascertaining detailed and comprehensive information on the subject of sport and development in young people (Gatz et al, 2002). Therefore, the use of such material is vital to gain an effective understanding of the general subject matter. Moreover, given that much of the wider research will utilise government sources, then the use of secondary book material will place such research within the required academic context. Thus, the use of such methods basically conceptualises e present policy moves on a broader theoretical and historical foundation.
Both primary and secondary source material will be used on a fashion, which utilises both quantitative and qualitative approaches. However, given the theoretical basis on which the subject area rests, the primary methodological approach will focus on qualitative evidence and assertions. However, although the use of quantitative methods will be less than those of qualitative techniques, the utilisation of data evidence to support qualitative assertions will be important. Naturally, due care and attention will be paid to issues pertaining to bias and impartiality in qualitative assessments (Dawson, 2002). Such concerns will be taken into account with regards to secondary academic material. However, issues such as these will figure prominently in the examination of government-based material and also that derived from nongovernmental organisations. Indeed, given the political concerns which can often be found in government literature it is vital that this area of research investigation is carried out on a basis, which takes account for such concerns, and the impact it has on the literature itself (Dawson, 2002).
1.6 Quantitative Research
Preliminary research was carried out utilizing the Fishbein model, the understanding of consumer behaviour (more precisely our target audience class) and different methods of research (quantitative and qualitative). Results have since then been collated, cross-tabulated and analyzed to draw up the findings of the research and relate consumer’s perceptions on certain attributes of Universities and the required changes of these in order to satisfy a larger target audience and gain in market share. It is possible to note that the predominant methodology with in this dissertation questionnaire which was followed was based on that of the Fishbein model which suggests that an individual’s attitude towards a matter is based upon their deep rooted sets of beliefs about the object’s attributes, which basically remain subjective to the evaluation of these attributes. This basically means that based upon and depending herewith, on the value of a value of a product or services’ attributes the importance of the same to the consumer base to the consumer; the product/service will be more or less competitive within the market.
The author intends to use a table to demonstrate the use of this model once the data has been collected for analysis. The analysis of these results will be discussed in the next section on analysis and findings. This table will be used to insert the data of the research concerning the results obtained from the questionnaire to be studied later on as values on certain attributes that are constituted to be the main attributes of sports as perceived by the respondents to be able to bring about the role of sports in a community in reducing exclusion and discrimination. The author followed the Chisnall (1997) criteria where as the method of data collection values allowed known characteristics in the population of youngsters under survey actually represent a certain portion of the target audience where as random sampling was not preferred as it would have made the research slightly biased as not all the population is young and excluded from sports or community due to the financial and life circumstances. The author has also chosen the respondents based on the idea of combining the idea of quota sampling through the use of the haphazard (convenience) method of sampling. According to the author Zikmund (1997) aids in getting hold of a target audience that is most conveniently available thus ensuring that a large number questionnaires are completed in the most cost effective way.
The author has also taken the liberty, for the sake of designing the most appropriate questionnaire to consider various questionnaire drafts before the final master design was set in order to discover the potential respondents understanding of the main factors set out for the purposes of examining perceptions towards sports. A final draft of this questionnaire is enclosed within the Appendix of this paper.
1.7 Types of questions used
The scale used in the questionnaire is known as the Likert Scale through which it is possible ask the interviewees how strongly they agree or disagree with a particular statement (s), through a four, five, six or seven point rating scale to response to beliefs and attitudinal questions. The results of the attributes were then input into the Fishbein’s attitude towards the object model to identify the best brand within the four being studied. This method was used in order for interviewees to respond to beliefs and attitudinal questions in line with the methodology suggested by Rice (1997). Furthermore classification questions were also included here in to find out the demographics of the respondent base through the determinant multiple choice system where as the respondents had to choose “one and only one response” from many possible alternatives (Zikmund, 1997)
1.8 Limitations of research:
The author is well aware of the limitations of research as they apply to the results of the survey questionnaire. This is because these can reach to a number of factors having an impact upon the results of a research study. The first likely occurrence is of systematic errors in a question, which can arise from “some imperfect aspect of the research design that causes respondent error or a mistake in the execution of the research” (Zikmund, 1997: 195). The middle part of the Likert scale gave the respondents a choice of avoiding giving a positive or negative response about their beliefs and evaluations of the role of sports in preventing social exclusion.
According to Zikmund (1997:196), this is “a bias that occurs because people that feel strongly about a subject are more likely to respond that people who feel indifferent about it”. This definition is self-explanatory and clearly indicates that this might have resulted in a less realistic image, of the target respondents’ base’s perception towards the role of sports in preventing social exclusion, when carrying out the research; especially, considering the interviewees may or may not have faced social exclusion themselves. Another likely occurrence according to Zikmund is of extremity bias that basically occurs when, “individuals tend to use extremes when responding to questions” and “others always avoid extreme positions and tend to respond more naturally” (Zikmund, 1997:200). The authors thinks that if this occurred when carrying out the questionnaires to carry out the research, the results would be definitely biased and would probably not represent the reality of the target audience’s perception towards the main attributes of the role of sports in preventing social exclusion.
The Sample size was limited initially to 200 college students (later modified to 160), due to the financial constraints and limited research time. The author also thinking now that having used convenience sampling might have also created limitations to the research as it could have contributed to a lack of objectivity, as it seems that the respondents are somewhat chosen by the interviewers and this can result in an unrealistic representation of the actual perception towards the attributes of the matter being studied. The Likert scale query then asked about the importance on a scale of 1 to 12 to the respondents of the factors in terms of sports. The question was a belief question or attitudes towards question once again utilizing the Likert scale to bring about the answer to a query with many value statements, which looked something, like this:
- Sports can only be played with a proper club membership
- Sports Clubs are too expensive and deter youth from sports
- More children and youngsters would play sports if the Government set up free leisure centres
- Playing sports keeps children away from drugs and violence
- Playing sports helps the youth become a more positive and productive part of the community
- Engaging in sports enhances important life skills such as teamwork etc
- Playing sports professionally will alleviate the finances of youth from less privileged backgrounds
- Sports Clubs can be vital in enhancing community relations between the local people
- Too many clubs can get in the way of free play
- The government can play a positive role in ensuring youth develop their sports skills
- Professional sports initiatives can prevent crime in younger children
- Sports in schools and in community activities actually improves health and the general feeling of well-being in the youth
- Sports enhances team work qualities in the youth and promotes communal harmony
- Children who play sports have less behavioural issues
- Anti-social behaviour in a society can be prevented by ensuring the sports in promoted in the schools from a younger age
- Sports based academic scholarships will increase physical activity in a community
- The youth from less privileged backgrounds can be encouraged to play sports by being offered college scholarships and other incentives to encourage social inclusion and youth development in a society
The next question was a simple yes or no question asking whether the respondents though those sports should be free? Finally the last two questions were demographic and classification questions aimed simply at the query of the age and sex of the respondents. The research project has been enhanced as a result of active empiricism. This empiricism will take the form of a questionnaire aimed to highlight the interaction between sport and social exclusion. The questionnaire will conform to the best traditions of social scientific investigation.
1.9 Possible Limitations of the Methodology
Given that the general research area under investigation is very broad in nature, the present study will suffer from a number of limitations. Firstly, the absence of empirical investigation as outlined earlier does result in limited research possibilities. However, it is better to exclude such research endeavours than to include unsatisfactory ones (Dawson, 2002).
Also, as the research study being undertaken aims to encapsulate the whole process of sport and youth development throughout adolescence. Therefore, it will not be possible to focus in detail on the differences and disparities, which occur between different age groups in adolescence. As suggested above, this does not necessarily pose a serious problem for the present study, however, detailed investigation into such variations would naturally enhance the research process overall.
It was suggested above that through the use of the various sources and studies available it will be possible to briefly draw comparisons between sport and youth development in the United States and Britain. One limitation will be that it will not be possible to undertake such investigation in relation to other countries, as this would broaden the research foundations too far. However, was it possible, such further comparisons would certainly exemplify the essential assertions and suppositions made in the research to a greater extent?
- Justification and Significance of Research
The above discussions and examinations undertaken in the literature review highlight the degree to which sport and youth development is an increasingly important area of study in academic discourse. Moreover, government activity with regards to this issue exemplifies the degree to which sport forms an integral component of overall policy prescriptions in relation to young people. As such, the prevalence of material from both academic and government sources personifies the significance of the present research.
The research, which has been outlined above, is justifiable because it forges a clear link between sport and youth development. Given that future-sporting success is reliant upon increased participation then the research is justifiable in pure sporting terms. However, the research is also justifiable because it shows the importance sport has for wider social concerns. Thus, by highlighting the positive role sport can play in the development of young people it may be possible to increase the funding allocations given by central and local government to sporting projects both at a national and local level
1.11 Literature Review
In order to carry out the research aims and objectives, a variety of literature has been used. Naturally, given the encompassing nature of the research aims then a significant amount of different literature will be used. As such, in this literature review the focus will be placed on the most prominent literature, which will act as the foundation for further research.
Basically, this study aims to help to improve the access to sports for the socially excluded groups in the UK .It has been observed abundantly from the literature review that the senior citizens, the disabled, the financially less fortunate as well as both genders in any society or community have their needs and wants such as health care, financial, emotional support and education, vocation and leisure. This makes the provision of state sponsored recreational programs, in an equal manner indispensable for their physical, cognitive and socio-emotional development of the society. Due to this reason, it is necessary to assess and clarify the current performance and potential of recreational facilities and programs in the context of Britain. Students of leisure services, as well as students of gerontology, require a background in leisure services with the socially excluded because leisure is an integral part of the societal lifestyle.” (Teaff, 1985, p.vii)
As the size of elderly, disabled and economically less fortunate population continues to grow in the UK, especially after the recent credit crisis, it is important to provide more of the expected leisure services or recreational programs for them. Recreational programs targeted at ending social exclusion in sports are beneficial for the society in maintaining the physical and mental health of the people in an equal manner as well as enriching their social lives (Hallie et al (1997). The physical advantages of such activities include strengthening of the cardiopulmonary functions, keeping the body in good health, controlling of body weight, improvement in blood pressure and reduction the level of blood lipids, achievement in better control of diabetes, reduction in the injury from falls, prevention of stroke and coronary heart disease, and prevention of osteoporosis which are basically a need for the health and betterment of the future children in the society.” Physical recreation programs … provide participants with the opportunity to increase their heart rate, stretch their muscles, flex their joints, or expand their lungs help maintain physical capacities” (McNeil, 1987, pp.92-93). Recreational programs and sports targeted at the can motivate the elderly to remain physically active, to burn more of calories, to stretch and bend to reduce the risk of disabling conditions. In addition, the elderly recreational programs are also important for the increase in opportunities for the excluded groups of the society in making friends, in enhancing social interaction between people and enlivening the state of mind as well as to help to reduce their stress. Moreover, recreational, sports and leisure programs for the elderly will allow them to make constructive use of their leisure time, build social networks and participate in their community affairs (Hallie et al (1997).
Holt (2007) has offered a detailed and comprehensive appraisal of the subject areas around sport and youth development. In particular, considerable time is dedicated to assessing the concept of positive youth development (PYD). PYD has developed over recent decades to become an integral component in both the theoretical assessment of sport based youth development and also practical application. Holt (2007) also outlines how PYD is increasingly viewed as possible through the use of sport related activities. The building of confidence and teamwork is essential to effective PYD, and sport achieves notably success in instilling both these essential components. Furthermore, Holt (2007; p.1) outlines the manner in which PYD conceptualises youth as being “a resource to be developed rather than a problem to be solved”. Therefore, effective PYD in sport represents a “strength based conception of development (Holt, 2007; p. 1). Thus, given that undertaking-sporting activities requires a measure of proactive effort on the part of the individual, it is clear how sport and effective PYD work in conjunction and indeed complement each other. Overall, Holt (2007) provides a good general study of the positive role sport can play in youth development. However, a number of other effective book based studies assume a similar broad approach to the subject area and therefore require mention. These include Perkins (2007), Poinsett (1996), Gatz et al (2002) and Adams & Brodsky (2005).
Weinberg & Gould (2007) has detailed a number of important issues, which are vital to the research questions outlined above. In particular, through the use of various other primary and secondary source materials, Weinberg & Gould (2007) suggest that there is a clear and direct link between youth sport and youth behaviour. Firstly, the assertion is made that partaking in sport results in better levels of behaviour among young people. This suggestion is supported by a number of theoretical reasons. For example, firstly sport is a motivational force for young people. Secondly, taking part in sporting activities requires that the individual dedicate considerable time and effort to the endeavour, often over a relatively long time period. Finally, given that sport often involves losing to an opponent, then undertaking such activity allows young people to gain the necessary experience to overcome difficulty and adversity without recourse to negative methods (Weinberg & Gould, 2007). In addition, Weinberg & Gould (2007) have detailed through the use of various literatures that there is a direct link between participation in sport and the reduced likelihood of delinquency. This assertion is further supported by data based evidence. Moreover, it is suggested, “participants in organised sport are less likely than nonparticipants to engage in delinquent behaviour” (Weinberg & Gould, 2007; p. 558). Thus, the theoretical and practical assumptions which Weinberg & Gould (2007) have asserted are particularly useful in exemplifying the major research objectives, aims and questions outlined above.
The concept of social exclusion prompts a query inside the mind of the reader as how the term when used interchangeably with social, gender and racial inequalities, social stratification and division applies to sports. While it has been pointed out by many commentators as to how the concept of exclusion includes all these concepts including the lack of access to sports access as a public good, as an ingredient of promoting or eliminating class divisions of power and status as well as for race and gender in the context of the society in Britain today (Payne (2006), Jarvie (2006)). According to Roberts (2009) the context of social exclusion as it pertains to a societal good pertains to how people are typically excluded from this combination of wealth, employment, societal and employment and income in the society. This is also the definition used in the policy-making apparatus of the European Union, which was used at the inception of the EU institutions in the early seventies particularly in the context of unemployment in the EU.
The word Social Exclusion has also since the landslide victory of the Labour government as a key governmental initiative in dealing with disadvantaged groups in the society. Sports have also remained at the forefront of the EU and UK agenda for political change in terms of dealing with disadvantaged groups. Young people from low income and minority groups as well as those with disabilities and the homeless are often cited as the key risk groups for social exclusion within sports. This means that exclusion is occurring not in singular contexts but in multiple intersections within it in the society. Sports have no doubt been at the forefront of social policy as a tool for preventing social exclusion but despite the popularity of sport and its immense potential as a policy tool practical experience has shown quite the same. Coalter (2008) has done a detailed review of the same and has showed immense pessimism at the same being an effective tool indeed.
From a sociological perspective when we see the impact of sports upon social exclusion it is possible to note the way sport has been socially constructed as a contributor to social exclusion, as it did in its initial social construct exclude women and the disabled. The emergence of professional sports and sports clubs lead further to the exclusion of low-income minority groups. This has led to compounded social exclusion within the society in the recent years for example women who are disabled or from racial minority backgrounds. This change has been incorporated in social policy and state initiatives while dealing with similar social exclusions in the context of sports. Perhaps then the starting point for the study of this subject is to look at the basis of the social construction of exclusion in sports.
Payne (2006) has explored the role of social divisions in a society and it is possible to see how his suggestions of the constructed boundaries between the people, which are basically invisible until problems start occurring, apply to sports. Roberts (2009) has also done some seminal work on the contexts of social exclusion as they pertain to the distribution of goods and resources in the society. Coalter (2007) has taken these concepts further and criticized the expectations from government policy as using sports as means of achieving crime reduction. Coakley (2007) has also criticized the failing role of state policy in preventing gender and race issues from preventing the masses from having easy access to sports as recreation as a profession. Collins and Kay (2003) have looked at the two concepts of sport and social exclusion, and pointed out how the lack of developing the notions of strong citizenship and community has led to the exclusion of delinquents, rural youths and women in a multicultural society.
Another interesting dimension for the same comes from the works of Henry (2001) who has spoken about the relevance of political issues and leisure policy from the social, economic and cultural changes as they have occurred since the Thatcher era. The saner point of view of course comes from writers like Ibbetson et al (2003) who have spoken about the role of sports in terms of its potential, participation and possibilities as they arise in the interests of social inclusion. Yet another interesting dimension of social exclusion which the author has not touched upon in the dissertation at hand is the concept of sexual orientation as it relates to the problem of social exclusion due to the predominant social constructs of masculinity in our society. This issue has been discussed in greater detail by Anderson (2005), Alvarez (2008) and Aitcheson (2007). Perkins & Noam (2007) have offered a comprehensive assessment of the characteristics of sport based development programmes in the United States. The use of such cross-cultural examination will therefore be able to compare British polices with those of the United States.
The actions of central government in relation to increasing levels of youth participation in sport generally centre on the Children’s Act 2004 (DCMS; 2010). However, it is local authorities, which are charged with the implementation of directions contained within the legislation. Therefore, although government sources such as the Department for Culture Media and Sport are hugely beneficial for outlining overall policy in this area, local government actors are also of significant importance. These include measures such as the “Youth Development Strategy” as outlined by the Vale of White Horse District Council (Vale of White Horse District Council, 2009; [online]). Using the plethora of material provided by this specific local authority highlights the degree to which sport assumes an important component of strategy towards young people in general. Also, such sources exemplify the role of sport in ensuring that behavioural problems among young people are combated in a proactive way, which empowers the individual young person and places them at the centre of analysis.
Coakley, J (2007) has carried out an excellent discussion about sports and social exclusion in chapter 10 and 15 of his book. Collins et al (2003) has also explored the relationship between sports and social exclusion in terms of poverty, constraints and benefits upon playing sports, role of gender suppression, youth delinquency and rural and urban exclusion has recommended the ways forward for ensuring policy implementation via the promotion of stronger citizenship and communal social capital through sports policy. The political dimension of the same has been discussed by Henry (2001) where the social, economic and cultural changes within leisure and leisure provision as they affect the issue of social exclusion since the Thatcher era and the Labour policies of leisure have been highlighted. Jarvie (2006) has discussed the nature of the social divisions in sport in Britain, particularly in chapter 15 of the same where attention is specifically draw upon data to explore the issue of social exclusion, participation and opportunity in sport.
Ibbetson et al (2003) have in a more recent study reviewed the role of sports and leisure and the potential and possibility of the same in promoting communal inclusion. The topics reviewed include the impact of sports volunteerism, planning international sporting events to promote inclusion, the cost benefit structures of sporting police, and their social impacts. In fact, this author has made an endeavour to review the motivations of young female sailors from the perspective of instructors as well as on environmentally sustainable lifestyles and leisure in the context of post-communist jurisdictions. The role of gender inclusion in sports as a means to an end of promoting healthier and more sustainable communities has also been done by Houlihan, B (2008) who has also linked gender biases to issues of sport and society, especially those including issues of policy and social exclusion. Similar perspectives have been offered as on need for tackling disability through comparison of the current sports polices in the UK with other jurisdictions, for instance, with Australia, North America, European Union and sport in the Muslim world.
More seminal work have been done by Tomlinson (2006) and Roberts (2002) while exploring the available issues of social exclusion in leisure, which include the problems of exploring the growth of work and leisure, and moves on to explore gender, the life course and lifestyles, and identities within leisure in the context of Britain. Tomlinson (2006) takes this discussion further by stating that class, community, gender and sexualities should not be ignored at all within the dimension of reviewing social exclusion in sports.
The dimension is sexuality has been further explored by many commentators who have explored the topic of sexuality alongside the gender relations and the dominating view is that the both in extricable linked in terms of exploring the relationship between gay athletes and their exclusion in sports. Anderson’s work has thus put forward societal attitudes towards masculinity with a discussion about the role and experience of gay male players in football and cricket. This has also called in the dimension of gay gym subcultures along with interesting historical and sociological gay cultures in modern British society. The historic concept of how male sexuality and sports evolved from Greek ideal forms of masculinity, their gym culture and the like to the current day experiences of older males and gay gym culture from the “locker rooms”. Therefore it can be noted from the works of many commentators that themes of sexuality and gender in sport in terms of the masculinities, femininities and gay and lesbian sexualities where as the problem of representing all these gender perspectives in sports forms the core of gender inclusion.
It is worth noting how, in European society, women have contested and contended against representation of male domination in football, tennis, rugby and skate boarding. It is worth noting how the ‘feminization’ of male sports arenas in the case of basketball, triathlon and cricket has affected the performance of sexuality and reduced the incidence of homophobia in sporting spaces. Caudwell, J (2006) and Lucas (2000) have in this light explored gender and sexuality in sport, based upon theory and empirical evidence. Lucas (2000) has also made some interesting observations about the way Nike has tried to promote the role of women in sports by promoting female empowerment in sports but has failed to do so properly. The concept of gendered imagery in sports has also been taken up by Messner (2007) and Messner, and Sabo (1990) speaking about the feminist perspectives on male dominated and violent sports. Scraton and Flintoff (2002) is based upon feminist theories as they relate to media, race, sexuality, power and masculinity as well as exploring issues of policy and politics relating to gender and sport. The works of Wellard (2009) show a similar spirit he has also endeavoured to triangulate the matters of gender and class with social exclusion. Armour (2000) takes this issue further and explores this dimension in the matter of sports and class debates in the context of middle class Britain. He rejects the defence of meritocracy and goes on to say that class differences in Britain still promote discrepancy in the various socioeconomic groups. Gruneau, R (1999) has discussed the relationship between agency and structure in sport and the way it causes inequality in sports based on class relations. Green et al (2005) provides a good discussion on social class and involvement and experience within physical education, and this discussion is taken further by Nicholson et al (2008) who discuss the nature of social capital and sports.
Social exclusion in the context of this dissertation is of course not just limited to class and gender, it also has to it the significant dimension of disability which is as an area of research with in sport and social exclusion has been explored in the major works of Fitzgerald (2005) and Juette et al (2008). Fitzgerald (2005) has discussed in detail how during physical education the disabled children and youth feel that the face negative attitudes and lack a platform for voicing their concerns. Juette et al (2008) is an interesting account of how the author pursued wheelchair basketball after his own physical paralysis .The role and experiences of disabled women in sports have been discussed in detail by Hargreaves (2000) and Howe (2008). Howe (2008) has also explored the dimension of how technology has impacted upon the role of technology and disability in sports and the Paralympics movement. DePauw and Gavron (2005) have explored the historical exclusion ad development of sport and disability including the development of the Paralympics movement. Nixon (2000) has explored the relationship between ability and sports and the impact of temporary and permanent disabilities in sports. Thomas (2003) has discussed an excellent introductory discussion about sports disabilities that have explored the way that disabled people have been excluded in the dimension of sports. Thomas and Smith (2009) shows a new addition to the current literature by offering a comprehensive discussion about the discussion of disability and sport through the way there has been an evolution of disability sport and sports development, as well as that of elite sport and how the media has impacted the same.
The ever-increasing population of Britain has its own needs for leisure, sports and recreation which need to be duly addressed by the private and public sector, especially in terms of the socially excluded groups involving senior citizens apart from the women, the less economically fortunate and certainly the disabled. A discussion on the role of age in sports and exclusion which has been explored in detail by Abbas (2004) through a discussion of running subcultures and the reinforcement of the notions of age, gender and class perception. Collins (2003) has given similar views and Leitner and Leitner, (2008) show how current government policy should be making an effort to promote inclusion of the older parts of the society.
- Analysis of ResultsThis section analyzes the current access to sports and recreation by the socially excluded groups of the UK society with a view of providing recommendations for improvement. By renovating of facilities, it can help to create and manipulate environments to facilitate people to motivate them. The results of the survey were aimed to aid in the allocation and testing (in the questionnaires) of the attributes considered to be important factors in the perception formation about sports and social exclusion This section of the dissertation pertains to an analyze the quantitative results of the research survey which was undertaken through questionnaires and utilizes Fishbein’s attitude-towards-the-object model; a major theoretical model and Likert scales especially in the formulation and analysis of the questionnaire’s questions number 3 and 5. This will be analyzed accordingly to follow Fishbein’s model of attitude-towards-the object. Question number 1 and 3 was specially formulated to reflect the theory and practice of the Fishbein’s model. Figure 1.0 shows the numerical values derived from the evaluation of the above
- Q-3
The government can play a positive role ensuring youth development | 3.1 |
Professional sport initiatives can prevent crime in younger children | 3.2 |
Sports in schools and in community activities improves health and the general feeling of well-being in the youth | 3.3 |
Sports enhances teamwork qualities in the youth and promotes communal harmony | 3.4 |
Children who play sports have less behavioural issues | 3.5 |
Anti-social behaviour in a society can be prevented by ensuring the sports are promoted in schools from a younger age | 3.6 |
Sports based academic scholarships will increase physical activity in a community | 3.7 |
The youth from less privileged backgrounds can be encouraged to play sports by being offered scholarships and other incentives to encourage social inclusion and youth development in a society | 3.8 |
Q3 | Q3.1 | Q3.2 | Q3.3 | Q3.4 | Q3.5 | Q3.6 | Q3.7 | Q3.8 |
5 | 5 | 6 | 4 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 5 | |
6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | |
6 | 5 | 7 | 6 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 6 | |
6 | 5 | 5 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 6 | |
6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 2 | 5 | 6 | 6 | |
7 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 5 | 7 | 5 | 6 | |
6 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 6 | 6 | ||
5 | 5 | 7 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 5 | 5 | |
7 | 6 | 7 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 6 | 6 | |
6 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 6 | |||
7 | 6 | 7 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 5 | 6 | |
5 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 5 | |
6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | |
6 | 6 | 7 | 6 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 4 | |
6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 6 | 7 | |
4 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | |
6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 5 | |
5 | 4 | 7 | 5 | 5 | 3 | 5 | 5 | |
6 | 2 | 6 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 6 | |
2 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |
5 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 5 | |
5 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 5 | |
6 | 4 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 6 | |
5 | 6 | 6 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 6 | ||
5 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 5 | |
6 | 6 | 5 | 6 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 6 | |
6 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 4 | 5 | 2 | 5 | |
6 | 6 | 7 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | |
7 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 6 | 7 | |
7 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 6 | |
6 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 6 |
The majority responses as possible to discern from the table above pertained to “agreeing” and strongly agreeing. Following this pattern it is possible to discern the following trends:
Firstly, assuming that the results of the survey reflect the views of majority of the UK population, sports clubs seem to be less popular in the eyes of the socially excluded groups. There are however very positive views about sports scholarships and government subsidies to alleviate the situation of sports exclusion in the UK for the less economically fortunate groups.
The query whether sports Clubs should be free elicited the following majority response of a “yes”
Q2 Should Sports clubs be free? |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
2 |
1 |
2 |
1 |
1 |
2 |
1 |
2 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
Q 1 | Please tick the box that represents your opinion on the following statements |
Q 1.1 | Sports can only be played with a proper club membership |
Q 1.2 | Sport club memberships are too expensive and deter youth from engaging in sports |
Q 1.3 | More children and youngsters would play sports if the Government set up free leisure centres |
Q 1.4 | Playing sports keep children away from drugs and violence |
Q 1.5 | Playing sports helps the youth become a more positive and productive part of the community |
Q 1.6 | Engaging in sports enhances important life skills such as teamwork |
Q 1.7 | Playing sports professionally will alleviate the finances of youth from less privileged backgrounds |
Q 1.8 | Sport clubs can be vital in enhancing community relations between the local people |
Q 1.9 | Too many sport clubs can get in the way of free play |
Q1.1 | Q1.2 | Q1.3 | Q1.4 | Q1.5 | Q1.6 | Q1.7 | Q1.8 | Q1.9 |
1 | 5 | 5 | 3 | 3 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 4 |
1 | 6 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 6 | 4 | 4 | 6 |
1 | 6 | 7 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
1 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 1 | 3 | 6 |
2 | 6 | 7 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 6 | 2 |
1 | 7 | 7 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 4 | 7 | 5 |
4 | 6 | 7 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 4 |
1 | 2 | 2 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 3 | 4 | 6 |
1 | 7 | 7 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 5 | 4 | 5 |
2 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 3 | |
1 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 7 | 6 | 2 | |
4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 6 | 4 |
4 | 6 | 7 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 5 |
1 | 5 | 7 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 5 | 6 | 3 |
3 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 2 |
1 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 5 | |
1 | 7 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 5 | ||
2 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 6 | 4 | 3 | |
1 | 7 | 7 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 2 | 1 | 6 |
1 | 7 | 7 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 5 |
1 | 4 | 7 | 5 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 5 | 4 |
1 | 7 | 5 | 3 | 5 | 6 | 5 | 6 | 5 |
2 | 5 | 6 | 4 | 5 | 7 | 4 | 5 | 4 |
1 | 6 | 7 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
1 | 7 | 5 | 3 | 5 | 6 | 5 | 6 | 5 |
1 | 6 | 7 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 6 | 4 |
1 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 5 | 6 | 5 | 5 | 4 |
1 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 7 | 3 |
1 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 2 | 6 | 2 |
1 | 6 | 7 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 5 | 6 | 4 |
2 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 5 | 6 | 4 | 5 | 4 |
It is possible to note from the results that there were negative attitudes towards the assertion that sports could only be played with a proper club membership. The majority response agreed with the contention that sports club can be too expensive and may actually deter youth from engaging in sports. There was a large amount of favour shown for the view that more children/youngsters would play sports if the Government set up free leisure centres. The majority response also agreed that playing sports can keep children away from drugs and violence and that playing sports helps the youth become a more positive and productive part of the community. Positive views were also shown for the following statements (strongly agree (7) and Agree (6)
- Engaging in sports enhances important life skills such as teamwork
- Playing sports professionally will alleviate the finances of youth from less privileged backgrounds
- Sport clubs can be vital in enhancing community relations between the local people
- Too many sport clubs can get in the way of free play
It seems that there is a perception within the general public that sports should be treated as a free good and something that brings the community together and not something to be confined to the clubs and professional sports players. This is important for the betterment of the overall health and fitness of the society. This begs the question then as to how the perspectives above can be used to stakeholder summary and intervention personnel.
Following the wisdom of the EU social alleviation models it is believed that it is best if things in this area are left as flexible as possible in terms of the roles of the stakeholder and intervention personnel who can play a positive role within the community in order to ensure that any such programme is implemented successfully. The following individuals, health and academic professions can collaborate with the local sports and government facilities to promote sports for the socially excluded groups.
- Health researchers,
- Primary care physicians (general practitioners),
- Policy makers
- Nutrition/diet professionals,
- Teachers,
- Physical activity professionals,
- Health promotion agencies,
- Health departments,
- Specialist doctors
- Parents
- Community leaders
This will certainly require a strategy mix which can be combined to bring about a multiagency public physical health model; this in turn will be based on the following combined interventions based upon the following health intervention strategies to promote sports in the local populations.
- Educational,
- Health promotion,
- Psychological
- Family
- Behavioural therapy
- Counselling
- Management strategies.
The author proposes the SMART methodology framework which can be used to direct and indirect health interventions to reduce the problem of unhealthy lifestyles by the middle and lower income class people in the UK. At this point, it is hoped that given the correct flow of public funds and media interest these objectives are not only measurable but also have fair chance of success where as it is possible to be able to specify a chance of 60% in the one year time period for the programme. The next question will pertain to whether it is possible to achieve these objectives realistically and with in time. Again the matter is up to the timely and sufficient funding and the bureaucratic involvement of the UK health authorities in the matter at hand, which should pertain to the point of achieving the set targets within reasonable time.
In light of the above, the planned direct interventions which will be implemented upon the young people through their food, sports, exercise and health routines at homes and schools, will include those relevant to diet and nutrition, exercise and physical activity, lifestyle and social support which will be heavily publicized through the help of NGO’s, community organizations and of course through health promotion schemes based on the theory of the health promotion models proposed by.
The setting for these sports and PE interventions will use a combination of the community educational institutional, religious organizations where the youngsters frequent, community entertainment and socialization venues and finally the role of the community leaders and role models in promoting good eating and nutritional practices and physical exertion. Sports and physical activity can be promoted amongst the very young primary secondary students through the use of incentives and community competitions.
1.13 Concluding Chapter: Recommendations and Conclusions
The potential of sports and recreation programs for the socially excluded should be explored in detail by the government to ensure that the same can be offered for better societal conditions in Britain. At the local governmental level this can be organized by the creation of various interest classes, leisure and recreational activities tailor-made to residents of different age groups along the year free or cost or at subsidized rates. The importance of Sports for the socially excluded groups can be seen from the way UK is going through problems of poor health and obesity especially for the socially excluded groups. The promotion of the same can serve many good purposes in the society and it is worth revisiting the literature review at this point. It has been noted earlier that the combination of physical, cognitive, socio-emotional and moral aspects of a person is what is referred to as behaviour. It is not only a holistic process, but also a product. In general, physical development includes growth and physical energy, the acquisition of fine and gross motor skills, physical coordination, and activity preferences (Howe, 1993). Cognitive development includes the ability to think abstractly, the ability to reason with logic, academic achievement, and limitations in mental abilities (Howe, 1993). Socio-emotional development includes fears, moods, worries, relationships with others, and self-control (Howe, 1993). This is especially true for the older groups in the society who, tend to live longer and healthier because of the medical advances and lifestyle changes. As far as the younger groups are concerned, in their cognitive development, similar to the changes and differences in physical condition, there are variations in cognitive and mental processes between individuals at the elderly life stage. Eventually, mental processes are changing and need physical recreation to develop further. In their socio-emotional development, the both the young and old persons in the socially excluded groups tend to develop the need for stronger social connections and need to renew or begin leisure activities
Sports should be viewed as both the need and the want of the society’s excluded groups “A need is, indeed, something that drives us to act in a certain way; and, once the need is met it no longer serves as a driving force for behaviour.” (Jordan, 2005, p.81) For example, when people think they need to keep fit or get healthier, they may do some running exercise to satisfy their needs. Again this leaves the author wonder what then is a want? It is quite difficult to differentiate between the term need and want. The term want or desire is typically something that we perceive as being needed. Want and desires are culturally learned and are influenced by social fads and trends. In addition, they are often based on previous experience and knowledge (Edgerton, et al, 2004). For example, we may need to do some physical activities. However, one may want to play basketball or just a walk. This mandates government action to improve the condition of the same.
Identification of needs of the socially excluded young groups is very important before determining the types of recreation or leisure services required to fulfil the needs and wants of the socially excluded groups in a society. In addition to fulfilling their physical needs, we also have to take into account of their thoughts and intelligence. It is essential to understand that they are part of the resources of the society and we have to fulfil their needs and wants just like we do with other individuals. More significantly, it should be the socially excluded young persons’ own perceived needs that the professionals have to address. Common areas of needs are health care, financial, personal care, accommodation, emotional support and education/vocation/leisure (Chan, 2004).
Sports as a means of emotional support and as a social need
While affluent people can afford to spend money on some activities such as joining group activities or outing in order to enhance their social-interaction and happiness, in addition to enhancing their quality of life, poorer people cannot. This is not true, however, of the socially excluded groups who cannot afford to join health groups and clubs or play professional sports. In addition to the emotional needs, the social needs of the socially excluded are also very important and sports can serve this interest in a good way as well. It includes education, leisure and employment. For their social contribution, we do not only refer to gainful employment, but also their work as volunteer. Young persons in the socially excluded groups can do better once the community is prepared to recognize their efforts in doing volunteer work and serving the community (Chan, 2004).
Need for motivation and obstacles for the socially excluded
For the public sector and private sector leisure service providers, the aim is to not to motivate people, but create and manipulate environments to facilitate people to motivate themselves. Motivation-Based Theories are models that suggest leisure and recreation programs should be an outgrowth of, or response to individual and group needs. Needs are viewed as motivators or factors that influence the drives which people have in making decisions about involvement in leisure programs such as socially excluded groups’ recreational programs (Jordan, 2005). It is not easy for the current young persons in the UK society to have motivation to begin exercise especially if they are not used to exercising and spend too much time at home watching TV. Government policies and programme must be aimed at bringing out these groups and convincing them through formal education programs, which allow them to experience the benefits of exercise and develop the social aspects of the experience through group exercise.
The type of exercise may also focus on flexibility, muscle strength or endurance to cater to their physical needs (Teaff, 1985). By doing these, it will help to break down the obstacles of lack of physical ability, poor health and, even the lack of positive companionship that most of them are enduring. There are many ways to boost the achievements and worth of the same. This can be done through verbal recognition, prizes for various reasons even regular recognition categories within a time span in local health and sports facilities and small scholarships for the youngsters asking them to keep up the good work. In line with the concept of community services, a wide range of such recreational programs or services have to be developed, whether by the Government, or private sectors for the purpose of fulfilling the demand of the socially excluded
Enhancing Sports and Recreational Programs in the UK
Sports and recreational programs for the socially excluded groups can provide a means of social integration and new sources of personal meaning for the elderly. However, leisure participation rate will decline as the age increases. Activities that should be focused upon youngsters are those “that can be characterized as highly active, external to the home and physically demanding” (Teaff, 1985, p.51). Those activities include swimming, tennis, mountain climbing, waterskiing and other kinds of highly active, external and physically demanding activities. On the other hand, more passive activities such as nature walks, bird watching, picnicking, playing chess etc are found to have constant participation rates across the age group (McNeil, 1987). All such activities can easily be set up and provided for at the local health and sports facilities at a subsidized rate. It is recommended in the light of the above that the local government should set up public private partnerships aimed at developing a healthy lifestyle in local communities by allowing and facilitating local people, regardless of disability, gender and finances, to participate in sports and recreation programs such as sports and exercise to improve their health specifically and their quality of life in general. Such sports and recreational programs include indoor golf, football, tennis, fitness classes, table tennis, badminton, indoors lawn bowls, American pool, chess, arts social dance, gate ball and crafts. Other recommendations discussed above have included local government efforts to renovate the existing facilities of the United Kingdom in order to create and manipulate environments to facilitate people to motivate themselves. Action plans, as discussed before, can be made to enhance the better usage of the current facilities and fulfilling the needs and wants of the young socially excluded groups of local neighbourhoods, particularly those in rural areas.
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Appendix 1: Questionnaire:
I am a Sport and Leisure Management student at Canterbury Christ Church University and I’m conducting a research thesis on the role of sports on youth development and social inclusion amongst young people. Please take a while and help me complete this study by filling in the questionnaire as honestly as possible. Just tick the box most appropriate to your opinion.
I thank you in advance for your help and time and truly look forward to incorporating your views in the study.
I assure you that the views expressed by you in this questionnaire will be processed with thorough confidentiality in accordance with my academic code of ethics for research-based degrees.
Q 1 | Please tick the box that represents your opinion on the following statements | Strongly Agree (7) | Agree (6) | Slightly Agree (5) | Neither Agree or Disagree (4) | Slightly Disagree (3) | Disagree (2) | Strongly Disagree (1) |
Q 1.1 | Sports can only be played with a proper club membership | |||||||
Q 1.2 | Sport club memberships are too expensive and deter youth from engaging in sports | |||||||
Q 1.3 | More children and youngsters would play sports if the Government set up free leisure centres | |||||||
Q 1.4 | Playing sports keep children away from drugs and violence | |||||||
Q 1.5 | Playing sports helps the youth become a more positive and productive part of the community | |||||||
Q 1.6 | Engaging in sports enhances important life skills such as teamwork | |||||||
Q 1.7 | Playing sports professionally will alleviate the finances of youth from less privileged backgrounds | |||||||
Q 1.8 | Sport clubs can be vital in enhancing community relations between the local people | |||||||
Q 1.9 | Too many sport clubs can get in the way of free play |
Q 2 | Do you think sport clubs should be free? |
Yes | |
No |
Q 3 | Please thick the box that represents your opinion for football in relation to the following statements | Strongly Agree (7) | Agree (6) | Slightly Agree (5) | Neither Agree or Disagree (4) | Slightly Disagree (3) | Disagree (2) | Strongly Disagree (1) |
Q 3.1 | The government can play a positive role ensuring youth development | |||||||
Q 3.2 | Professional sport initiatives can prevent crime in younger children | |||||||
Q 3.3 | Sports in schools and in community activities improves health and the general feeling of well-being in the youth | |||||||
Q 3.4 | Sports enhances teamwork qualities in the youth and promotes communal harmony | |||||||
Q 3.5 | Children who play sports have less behavioural issues | |||||||
Q 3.6 | Anti-social behaviour in a society can be prevented by ensuring the sports are promoted in schools from a younger age | |||||||
Q 3.7 | Sports based academic scholarships will increase physical activity in a community | |||||||
Q 3.8 | The youth from less privileged backgrounds can be encouraged to play sports by being offered scholarships and other incentives to encourage social inclusion and youth development in a society |
Thank you again for your time and help!